Rome in the Footsteps of an XVIIIth Century Traveller

III - Chronology of the Events between 1957 and 2007

Year	Political Developments	Events in Rome
1957	France, Western Germany, Italy, the Netherlands, Belgium and Luxembourg sign in Rome the treaty establishing a Common Market (European Economic Community).	The Treaty of Rome is signed in Sala degli Orazi e dei Curiazi at Palazzo dei Conservatori in Campidoglio.
1958	Death of Pope Pius XII. His successor Cardinal Angelo Roncalli chooses to be called Pope John XXIII. Prostitution is no longer permitted in brothels, but is not per se a legal offence.	One of the first acts of the new pope is to pay an unprecedented visit to Regina Coeli, the prison of Rome. An area behind Terme di Caracalla becomes a notorious place for prostitution.
1960	The Olympic Games take place in an orderly manner. Italy joins the International Monetary Fund; its currency (Lira) receives an international award for its stability. After a decade (1950-60) of dramatic economic growth, Italy is no longer a mainly agricultural country, but a manufacturing one.	Sport facilities, including Palazzo dello Sport and Palazzetto dello Sport, are completed in time for the games. 1960 Rome is described by Federico Fellini's La Dolce Vita. Paparazzo, a character of the film becomes a noun meaning an intrusive photographer.

Palazzetto dello Sport by Pier Luigi Nervi and Annibale Vitellozzi (1960)

Pier Luigi Nervi (1891-1979) explored the potential of prefabrication and reinforced concrete to create very novel buildings which could be erected in a short time and at a low cost. His view was that Beauty does not come from decorative effects but from structural coherence. He was involved in some very large projects, e.g. an Audience Hall in the Vatican City, but Palazzetto dello Sport is still his most admired creation. You can see it in your way to the Auditorium designed by Roberto Piano in 1994.

Year	Political Developments	Events in Rome
1962	First government which relies on the support of the Socialist Party which has distanced itself from the Communists. Centre-left governments based on coalitions between Christian Democrats and Socialists will rule the country until 1992.	Pope John XXIII calls an Ecumenical Council in Rome "to open the windows of the Church so that we can see out and the people can see in". Michelangelo Antonioni shoots L' Eclisse at EUR, a description of the alienation of man within the now affluent Italian society.
1963	Death of Pope John XXIII. Cardinal Giovan Battista Montini is elected pope (Pope Paul VI). At the general elections the Christian Democrats lose part of their support. Aldo Moro is the cabinet leader for the following five years.	Pope Paul VI is the last pope to be crowned. He reduces the pomp of many ceremonies and abolishes the flabelli (large fans made of ostrich feathers) which were used during the pope's public appearances.

Palazzo dell'E.N.I. (1960-62)

E.N.I. is the major Italian oil company and it is partially owned by the State. In the 1950s it established direct relations with some oil producing countries (chiefly Iran). It offered partnership agreements which were more favourable for them than the usual royalty fees paid by the major international oil companies.
Its CEO Enrico Mattei built new headquarters at EUR which were aimed at showing an image of the company as a modern enterprise, rather than as a public administration body. He died in a mysterious plane crash in 1962.
This "International Style" building designed by M. Bacigalupo/U. Ratti (appearance) and L. Finzi/E. Nova (structure) reflected the ideals of that style which preached a form based on the function and a total absence of ornament. The pond which adds to the beauty of the building was paid for by the State to house some short distance rowing competitions during the 1960 Olympic Games.

Year	Political Developments	Events in Rome
1964	Autostrada del Sole (Sun Highway) is completed. It links Milan with Naples via Bologna, Florence and Rome. Private motoring becomes the prevalent long distance mode of travel, to the detriment of railway.	A plan for building low rent flats is approved by the City Council. Its implementation is very slow.
1967	The United Kingdom and Ireland apply for European Economic Community membership. The Six-Day War between Israel and its neighbours leads to the closure of the Suez Canal. Oil products become more expensive for Italy.	The Vicarage of Rome is moved to Palazzo del Laterano.
1968	At the general elections, the Socialists fare poorly: their coalition with the Christian Democrats becomes very shaky with frequent changes of cabinets.	Major demonstrations at the University of Rome which is occupied by the students.

"Propilei" dell'EUR (1961-65)

The original plan developed in the 1930s provided for an "Imperial Gate" to give access to the 1942 World's Fair area. The plan was abandoned after WWII and the gate was replaced by identical twin buildings, called Propilei dell'EUR, with a reference to the propylaea giving access to Athens acropolis. However the Romans often refer to them as the termosifoni dell'EUR as they remind the viewer of a popular type of home radiator. The buildings were designed by Luigi Moretti and Vittorio Ballio Morpurgo on the assumption of a continued low cost of energy.

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The writer of this page remembers when (at the age of 20) he first started working in one of these buildings and how much he was impressed by its facilities which included a restaurant, a cinema, first class medical equipment, a post office, a bank and a mall for the employees to do their shopping during their midday break.
When (some years later) he was admitted to the room where the Board members used to meet, he instantaneously fell in love with Giuseppe Vasi's 1765 Grand view of Rome which embellished one of the walls.

Year	Political Developments	Events in Rome
1969	A bomb explodes in a bank in Milan causing 14 dead and 90 wounded. First inquiries lead to the arrest of many anarchists, but eventually the bombs will be blamed on neo-fascist groups.	Coinciding with the Milan bomb, explosions occur in Rome at the Monument to King Victor Emmanuel II and near a bank. There are no casualties.
1970	Statuto dei lavoratori, a comprehensive labour law establishes additional rights for workers and trade unions. Divorce is admitted notwithstanding the opposition of the Christian Democrats who promise to call a referendum to abolish it.	The population of Rome reaches 2,907,000 inhabitants. It is almost its peak: for a short period it will be slightly above 3,000,000 and then it will decrease to its current level of 2,700,000.
1972	Luigi Calabresi, a police officer who was involved in the first inquiries on the 1969 Milan bomb is killed by a far-left group.	A mentally disturbed man damages with a hammer Michelangelo's Pietà in S. Pietro.
1973	In Milan a failed attempt on the life of the Interior Minister causes the death of four and 45 wounded. The Yom Kippur War leads to an energy crisis which severely impacts on the Italian economy.	Far-left activists set fire to the house of a neo-fascist supporter killing his two sons. Palestinian terrorists make an attack at Fiumicino airport killing 30.

Pedestrian Area at Arco di Costantino

The Roman philosopher Seneca in his teachings to Emperor Nero claimed that Ex malo bonum nullam provenit (nothing good comes out of bad things). St. Augustine of Hippo extensively discussed this issue in one of his sermons (LXI) and the saying ex malo bonum from that time has entered the common language to indicate that sometimes a negative event can carry positive consequences.
In Italy the energy crisis, while severely damaging the economy, led to a rethinking of the role of private motoring.
In the 1960s cars were the emperors of Rome. The statue of St. Paul at the top of Colonna Antonina seemed more an attendant keeping an eye on the cars parked in the square, than the vigorous preacher of a new faith. All the obelisks were surrounded by parking-lots and Colosseo was a gigantic roundabout. Shopkeepers opposed all attempts to create pedestrian areas.
The energy crisis forced the government to forbid the use of private cars on Sundays and the Romans gradually rediscovered the beauty of their City. It was the beginning of a long process which has made it very difficult for motorists to venture into historical Rome: many streets have been closed, parking is extremely expensive, environmental laws forbid the access to cars not in line with anti-pollution requirements.
The photo above shows one of the areas of Rome which was the worst affected by motoring: cars were parked even on the wide terrace of Tempio di Venere e Roma and military parades went through Arco di Costantino.
PS: the fake columns on the terrace were a temporary (2007) decoration for a party celebrating the Italian fashion designer Valentino.

Year	Political Developments	Events in Rome
1974	A bomb kills 8 and wounds 90 at an anti-fascist meeting in Brescia. The Red Brigades, a far-left group, kidnap a judge in Genova. A bomb placed by a neo-fascist group kills 12 and injures 44 passengers of the Rome-Brenner Express. A referendum called by the Christian Democrats fails to cancel the divorce law.	The results of the referendum in Rome were particularly disappointing for the Christian Democrats and the Catholic Church: 67% of the Roman voters chose to retain the law (60% was the national average).
1976	The Lockheed bribery scandals bring to light that many politicians (including members of the cabinet) accepted bribes to favour the American company. The general elections show a great increase of the Communist Party which was not involved in the Lockheed scandals. Italy experiences a very high level of inflation.	The Communist Party becomes the largest party of Rome: Giulio Carlo Argan, an art historian is elected with the support of Communists and Socialists.
1977	The Red Brigades shoot several politicians, journalists and magistrates in the legs.	First Estate Romana: the Romans show they are not frightened by terrorism.
1978	The Red Brigades kidnap Moro, at the time President of the Christian Democratic Party. Four policemen escorting him are killed. After the government's refusal to enter negotiations, the Red Brigades kill Moro and leave his body in a small car in Via Caetani near the Christian Democrats' headquarters. Death of Pope Paul VI. The new pope, Cardinal Albino Luciani, chooses to be called with the names of his two predecessors: Pope John Paul I. After only 33 days he dies. Polish Cardinal Karol Wojtyla becomes Pope John Paul II, the first non-Italian pope since Pope Adrian VI. A law allows abortion during the first 90 days of pregnancy.	A ceremony celebrating Moro takes place in S. Giovanni in Laterano: in a very tense atmosphere Pope Paul VI delivers a moving homily; the family, who blames the government for having abandoned Moro, does not attend the ceremony, but a low key funeral at Torrita Tiberina, where the statesman had a countryside residence. Pope John Paul II gains an immediate popularity among the Romans with his first speech: with a smile he asks for their help in correcting his broken Italian and in doing so he makes an evident pronunciation mistake which makes everybody laugh.
1980	A National Health System providing free medical care and drugs to all citizen is introduced. A terrorist bombing at Bologna's Central Railway Station causes the death of 85 and injures more than 200. It is blamed on a neo-fascist terrorist group. While the terrorists show they cannot be contained by security measures, they also start to realize their political objectives are failing: the Red Brigades are unable to raise mass revolutions, while neo-fascist extremists discover that middle classes are not supportive of Law and Order/Iron Fist policies leading to authoritarian developments.	Neo-fascists and far-left groups continue to kill even in the very heart of Rome. At the University Vittorio Bachelet, a professor, is killed while talking with his assistant inside the Faculty. At the funerals one of his sons prays for his father's killers. He expresses the general view that the terrorists are just fanatics.

Palazzo della Esso Italiana (1978-80)

According to many Romans it is the strangest building of Rome. One of the explanations given for its unusual shape is that because the area was marshy, foundations needed to be very deep. The design chosen required this to occur on a very limited area (the three pillars supporting the gigantic "fans"). Certainly it is the most interesting building of a new business district which was developed in the late 1970s near Castello della Magliana, a Renaissance papal hunting lodge on the right bank of the Tiber. The building was designed by Julio Lafuente and Gaetano Rebecchini. Many travellers may have noticed it because it is next to the motorway linking the airport with Rome.

Year	Political Developments	Events in Rome
1983	Political elections: Christian Democrats go below 33% while the Socialists slightly gain (11%): it is enough for their leader Bettino Craxi to claim and obtain the post of premier.	Pope John Paul II calls for a special Jubilee Year.
1984	Craxi issues a decree allowing the TV stations owned by Silvio Berlusconi to continue broadcasting notwithstanding the contrary decisions of several judges.	Maybe 2,000,000 people gather in Piazza di S. Giovanni in Laterano for the funerals of Enrico Berlinguer, leader of the Communist Party. After his death the party gradually loses support.
1986	Italy takes part for the first time in the yearly G7 meetings. Notwithstanding this recognition, the deficit of the public sector weakens the economic relevance of Italy.	Pope John Paul II visits the Synagogue of Rome, the first pope to do so.
1989	A cabinet crisis lasts more than two months due to a feud among Christian Democrat politicians while the risk of bankruptcy looms on the horizon.	The Christian Democrat Mayor of Rome is forced to resign due to his involvement in the mishandling of cafeteria services in the schools.
1990	The Communist Party approves a plan for changing direction and abandoning its traditional allegiance to Marxism.	The Soccer World Championship takes place in Italy with the final game in Rome.

Air Terminal Ostiense

The World Soccer Championship was the occasion for an unprecedented waste of public money because many facilities were enlarged or rebuilt. In Rome the government decided to establish a railway link between Rome and its airport near Fiumicino (ancient Porto). It was a link much needed in view of the ever growing number of passengers flying to Rome. It damaged however the interests of the taxi drivers, a very powerful guild. They used their electoral vote to support a party (at the time the Socialist one) and in this circumstance they made their voice heard. The railway link was based on just three trains per hour and with a gap of 30 minutes between two of them: it was soon evident the service did not meet the needs of businessmen in a hurry, while many tourists did not know about this new facility which was poorly advertised at the airport. A large Air Terminal was built at Ostiense, the departing railway station: it had check-in facilities and a mall of shops: these after a few months run out of business and closed: the use of the Air Terminal was discontinued a few years later. It stood as a monument to the poor judgement and courage of Italian politicians until it was turned into a store selling Italian delicacies. The building was designed by Gae Aulenti, an architect who had acquired an international reputation for her restructuring of the Parisian Gare d'Orsay, which turned the old railway station into a museum. Later on she worked at doing the same at Scuderie del Quirinale.

Year	Political Developments	Events in Rome
1992	In Milan an investigation (eventually known as Mani Pulite - Clean Hands) starts into an alleged case of bribery involving a Socialist in charge of a historical home for the old. It gradually leads to discovering widespread corruption. Speculative attack against the Italian Lira; the government is forced to introduce additional taxes in a situation of emergency. The Sicilian Mafia kills two high magistrates and their escorts with explosive devices. All these events lead Italians to fear a collapse of the country: the blame is laid on the men in power.	The bribing system is not limited to Milan: officers of several public bodies are arrested for bribes associated with works at the University, at the Fiumicino Airport and with the administration of blocks of flats owned by State institutions.
1993	Mani Pulite finds that many politicians, including Bettino Craxi, are involved in corruptive practices. The situation is so difficult that Carlo Azeglio Ciampi, President of the Bank of Italy, is asked to lead an emergency cabinet. The electoral law is modified in an attempt to promote stable coalitions. The assumed godfather of the Sicilian Mafia is arrested and jailed for life.	The Socialist Mayor of Rome is forced to resign because a member of his team confesses to accepting bribes. An explosive device placed by the Sicilian Mafia damages the portico of S. Giorgio al Velabro. Elections for the Mayor of Rome see two opposed coalitions: one led by Gianfranco Fini leader of a neo-fascist party and the other by Francesco Rutelli supported by centre-left parties. Berlusconi makes his first political statement in support of Fini. Rutelli is the new Mayor of Rome.
1994	Berlusconi founds a party which gains many seats at the general elections: he leads a coalition cabinet with Lega Nord, a movement calling for the independency of northern Italy and with Fini's party. After a few months the coalition splits and Berlusconi resigns.	Bambinello dell' Ara Coeli is stolen. Berlusconi sets his private Roman residence in Via dell'Anima (near S. Maria dell'Anima) and later on at Palazzo Grazioli.
1995	Fini "cleans" his party from its neo-fascist origin. Centre-left parties design as their candidate for premiership Romano Prodi, a university professor in Economics. A cabinet led by Lamberto Dini, a former Director of the Bank of Italy introduces significant changes to the pension system by reducing its benefits.	The construction of a mosque is completed. First Rome Marathon.
1996	The coalition led by Prodi wins the general elections.	S. Giorgio al Velabro is restored to its pristine appearance.
1998	Italy implements a tight budget policy and is accepted among the founding participants in the Euro, a common European Currency which will replace the national ones. A far-left party withdraws its support and the cabinet falls. Prodi in 1999 is appointed Chairman of the European Commission.	Palazzo Altemps, a fine Renaissance palace is open to the public; it houses the Ludovisi collection of ancient statues. The relocation of the collection is part of a wider program of improvements to Museo Nazionale Romano.

Ara Pacis Augustae

The demolitions carried out during the 1930s led to discovering some fragments of Ara Pacis Augustae. The altar celebrated the peace during the rule of Emperor Augustus and other parts of it had been found in the previous centuries. It was decided to reconstruct the altar and a building housing it was placed next to Mausoleo di Augusto. Over the years it became evident that the building (a sort of gigantic shop window) did not ensure appropriate protection from humidity and pollution.
In 1995 the City of Rome decided to build a new container for Ara Pacis Augustae and a project by Richard Meier was selected.
The completion of the building was stopped by a junior member of the Berlusconi government (who came back to power in 2001) and so a matter of technical/artistic judgement was thrown into the political arena. Notwithstanding the opposition of the national government, local authorities eventually managed to complete the new container in 2006.

Year	Political Developments	Events in Rome
2000	Poor showing of the centre-left coalition at the regional elections.	The 2000 Jubilee attracts large crowds of pilgrims. Angels and Demons, a novel by Dan Brown's portrays an unusual Rome. Chiesa di Dio Padre Misericordioso is among the churches built for the Jubilee. It was designed by Richard Meier.
2001	The coalition led by Berlusconi wins the general elections. Violent clashes between the police and protesters at the G8 summit in Genoa.	At the local elections Rome confirms the centre-left majority.
2002	The Euro is introduced in 12 European countries. Proposed labour laws at easing firing procedures are met with strong trade unions opposition. Eventually the government gives up its proposal.	Major rally at Circo Massimo against the proposed changes to firing procedures. Parco della Musica, a multi-function complex designed by Renzo Piano is completed.
2003	Italy sends 3,000 troops as peacekeeping force in southern Iraq; a suicide bombing kills 19 Italians.	(Feb.) Major rally against the war. (Oct.) First Roman Sleepless Night.
2005	Death of Pope John Paul II. His successor, Cardinal Joseph Ratzinger, chooses to be called Pope Benedict XVI.	Funerary ceremonies see the participation of immense crowds (see a page on the papal transition).
2006	A centre-left coalition led by Prodi narrowly wins the general elections.	Crowds cheer the Italian Soccer Team after they win the World Championship.

2006 General Elections: posters thanking the Romans for their votes

At the end of the 2006 General Elections all parties were happy: those of the winning coalition (Prodi) because they had very narrowly managed to return to power; those of the losing coalition (Berlusconi) because they had lost, but not as much as the polls predicted: so not a single leader of a party thought the time had come for him to retire. 12 parties had representatives elected at Camera dei Deputati (the Lower Chamber), but they represented 18 political parties because in view of the elections some parties grouped together: two of them managed (together) to have 0.7% of the votes and yet their leaders did not feel they had to resign.
Such a situation is blamed on an electoral law introduced by the outgoing government, but it has deep roots in a national tradition of division rather than unity.

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At the end of this Abridged History of Rome it is nice to remind readers that according to a legend the City will last as long as a speck of gold is visible on the bronze statue of Emperor Marcus Aurelius. As you can see in the image used as background for this page, Rome is not yet at the end of her history.

Some images from "What's New" pages in 2008-2024

April 14, 2008 (early afternoon)

(left) A BBC journalist is about to interview Mr Vannino Chiti (Democratic Party) after the first results of the national polls indicate Mr Berlusconi is winning the election; (centre) no supporters in the square in front of S. Anastasia where the headquarters of the Democratic Party are located; (right) Mr Silvio Berlusconi

May 28, 2008

After 170 years Baroque fireworks returned to Castel Sant'Angelo

February 10, 2010

Snow in Rome

December 13, 2011

The Swedish community in Rome celebrated Saint Lucy's Day at Piazza di Pietra

August 8, 2014

S. Paolo fuori le Mura: a slight change in the direction of the spotlight reflects the existence of two living popes at the same time

August 20, 2015

Fragment of a Ist century AD fresco at Antiquarium Lucrezia Romana, the newest addition to the archaeological museums of Rome

January 1, 2017

New Archaeological area of Circus Maximus: marble fragments from an arch to Emperor Titus which embellished the circus

May 13, 2020

Piazza del Pantheon during the lockdown

June 2, 2022

Sergio Mattarella, President of the Italian Republic, reviews the troops before the military parade which every year celebrates the result of the referendum by which in 1946 the Italians chose the Republic as institutional form of the state. The President's car is a 1950s Lancia. The parade did not take place in 2020 and 2021. Learn more about this ceremony

January 1, 2023

Papal flags at half mast at Palazzo dei Convertendi and near Piazza S. Pietro for the death of Pope Benedict XVI; see a page on his election

January 12, 2024

A new museum of the City of Rome on the Coelian Hill: it houses the remaining fragments of "Forma Urbis Severiana" a marble map of ancient Rome which was affixed at Tempio della Pace

Previous pages: Part I: Ancient Rome:
I - The Foundation and the Early Days of Rome
II - The Early Republican Period
III - The Romans Meet the Elephants
IV - Expansion in the Eastern Mediterranean Sea
V - Pompey and Caesar
VI - Augustus
VII - From Tiberius to Nero
VIII - The Flavian Dynasty
IX - From Nerva to Marcus Aurelius
X - A Century of Turmoil (180-285)
XI - From Diocletian to Constantine
XII - The End of Ancient Rome
Part II: Medieval Rome:
I - Byzantine Rome
II - The Iron Age of Rome
III - The Investiture Controversy
IV - The Rise and Fall of Theocratic Power
V - The Popes Leave Rome
VI - From Chaos to Recovery
Part III: Modern Rome:
I - Rome's Early Renaissance
II - Splendour and Crisis
III - A Period of Change
IV - The Counter-Reformation
V - Early Baroque Rome
VI - The Age of Bernini
VII - The Loss of the Leadership in the Arts
VIII - A Sleeping City
IX - Grand Tour Rome
X - Drama at the Quirinale
XI - The Agony of the Papal State
Part IV: Chronology of the events between 1871 and 2007:
I - 1871 - 1911
II - 1912 - 1957